Grammar

〜は〜です

Topic marker は

Marks the topic of the sentence — "As for X, X is Y." The most common particle; it establishes what you are talking about.

〜が〜です

Subject marker が

Marks the grammatical subject — usually new or emphasized information. Identifies "which one" or introduces something for the first time.

〜です

Polite copula です

The polite "to be" verb. States that something IS something. Used after nouns and na-adjective stems; for i-adjectives です just adds politeness.

〜ではありません / 〜じゃないです

Polite negative copula ではありません

The polite negative of です — "is not / am not / are not". ではありません is formal; じゃないです is spoken-style.

〜でした

Polite past copula でした

The polite past of です — "was / were". Used after nouns and na-adjective stems.

〜ですか

Question marker か

Turns a statement into a yes/no question. Place か at the end of the sentence.

〜に〜がいます / あります

Existence います / あります

"There is ~ in/at ~." Use います for living things (people, animals); あります for non-living things (objects, places, events).

〜を〜ます

Direct object を

Marks the direct object of a transitive verb — the thing the action directly affects or acts upon.

〜に

Target / time / recipient に

A multi-purpose particle: (1) specific point in time, (2) destination of movement, (3) recipient/partner of an action, (4) location of existence.

〜で

Location of action / means で

Two main uses: (1) the place where an action takes place, (2) the means, tool, or language used to perform an action. Also (3) "because of" a cause (e.g. 風邪で).

〜と〜

And / with と

Two uses: (1) connects nouns in a COMPLETE list ("A and B, and nothing else"); (2) "together with" a person/animal.

〜や〜(や〜など)

Incomplete list や

Connects nouns in an INCOMPLETE list — "A, B, and so on." Implies there are other things not mentioned.

〜も

Also / too も

Replaces は/が/を to mean "also" or "too". With other particles it follows them (へも, にも, とも); with numbers も means "as many as".

〜へ

Direction / destination へ

Marks the direction or destination of a movement — "to / toward". Always paired with a motion verb (行く, 来る, 帰る, etc.).

〜から

From / since から (origin)

Marks a starting point in place or time — "from ~". Also marks the originator of an action (e.g. received FROM someone).

〜まで

Until / up to まで

Marks an endpoint in time, place, or extent — "until / up to / as far as ~".

〜しか〜ない

Only 〜しか〜ない

"Only ~" — expresses limitation, with a nuance of "nothing but / not enough". MUST be used with a negative verb.

〜だけ

Only / just だけ

"Only / just ~" — neutral limitation. Unlike しか, だけ goes with an AFFIRMATIVE verb and carries no sense of insufficiency.

〜の〜

Possessive / noun modifier の

Links two nouns. Many relationships: possession (私の本), location (日本の大学), affiliation (会社の社長), or simply "noun that is ~".

〜よ / 〜ね

Sentence-final よ / ね

よ asserts information the listener may not know ("I tell you / let me assure you"). ね seeks agreement or softens ("isn't it? / isn't that so?").

これ / それ / あれ / どれ

Demonstrative pronouns これ・それ・あれ・どれ

Standalone demonstratives (act as nouns). これ = near the speaker; それ = near the listener; あれ = far from both; どれ = "which one?"

この / その / あの / どの + [noun]

Demonstrative modifiers この・その・あの・どの

Demonstratives that MUST be followed by a noun. この本 "this book"; その人 "that person"; あの店 "that shop over there"; どのクラス "which class?"

ここ / そこ / あそこ / どこ

Place demonstratives ここ・そこ・あそこ・どこ

Place demonstratives. ここ = here (speaker); そこ = there (listener); あそこ = over there (far); どこ = where?

だれ / どなた

Question word だれ (who)

だれ = "who" (standard). どなた is the polite equivalent. Often combined with が (subject) or の (modifier).

何 / なに / なん

Question word 何 (what)

何 means "what". Pronounced なに usually, but なん before です, の, ので, and counters, and when followed by a t/d/n sound.

いつ

Question word いつ (when)

いつ = "when". Takes no particle when it's a question word about time at the start of a sentence; can pair with から/まで/に etc.

どう / どんな / なぜ

Question words どう・どんな・なぜ

どう = "how" (manner/condition). どんな + noun = "what kind of ~". なぜ・どうして = "why" (reason).

〜いです

i-adjective present affirmative 〜いです

i-adjectives end in い and conjugate THEMSELVES. です only adds politeness (it does not conjugate). For present-affirmative, the adjective stays in 〜い form.

〜くないです / 〜くありません

i-adjective present negative 〜くないです

To make an i-adjective negative, drop 〜い and add 〜くないです (or the more formal 〜くありません).

〜かったです / 〜くなかったです

i-adjective past 〜かったです / 〜くなかったです

i-adjective past affirmative: drop 〜い, add 〜かったです. Past negative: 〜くなかったです (or 〜くありませんでした).